Effective Instruction for All

RtI and students with significant disabilities. The concept of RtI, or Response to Intervention, first appeared on the national special education radar as a part of the IDEA 2004 legislation. For most special educators, the emphasis has been placed on students with a specific learning disability. The IDEA 2004 legislation stated: “In determining whether a child has a specific learning disability, a local education agency may use a process that determines if the child responds to scientific, research-based intervention as a part of the evaluation procedures…” This legislation provided an alternative to the use a discrepancy between achievement measures and intellectual disability measures to determine the presence of a specific learning disability. The bigger the discrepancy, the higher the probability that the student would be designated “learning disabled.” The RtI option is often linked to another part of the IDEA 2004 legislation allowing educators to use up to 15% of federal special education funding for students not identified as needing special education services, but needing support in the general education environment. One of the outcomes of this legislation was an emphasis on struggling readers in the k-3 grades. Many have assumed that the RtI concept has little instructional relevance for students with significant disabilities. An overview of RtI and the associated legislation is provided  in a summary document on RtI.

What is RtI. The core principles of RtI, as discussed in the above-listed summary document, are:

1. We can effectively teach all children.
2. Intervene early.
3. Use a multi-tier model of service delivery.
4. Use a problem-solving method to make decisions within a multi-tier model.
5. Use research-based, scientifically validated interventions/instruction to the extent
available.
6. Monitor student progress to inform instruction.
7. Use data to make decisions.
8. Use assessments for three different purposes: (a.) screening applied to all
children to identify those who are not making progress at expected rates; (b.)
diagnostics to determine what children can and cannot do in important academic
and behavioral domains; and (c.) progress monitoring to determine if academic or
behavioral interventions are producing desired effects.

Most of these core principles of RtI are just as relevant to the design and implementation of instruction for students with significant disabilities as they are to other students with disabilities.

Key Components of RtI. When we examine the three key components of RtI, the relevance of RtI for students with significant disabilities becomes  even more pronounced. These three key components, as noted in the above-listed summary document, are:

1. High-quality instruction/intervention, which is defined as instruction or
intervention matched to student need that has been demonstrated through
scientific research and practice to produce high learning rates for most students.
Individual response is assessed in RtI and modifications to instruction/
intervention or goals are made depending on results with individual students.

2. Learning rate and level of performance are the primary sources of information
used in ongoing decision making. Learning rate refers to a student’s growth in
achievement or behavior competencies over time compared to prior levels of
performance and peer growth rates. Level of performance refers to a student’s
relative standing on some dimension of achievement/performance compared to
expected performance (either criterion- or norm-referenced). Decisions about the
use of more or less intense interventions are made using information on learning
rate and level. More intense interventions may occur in general education
classrooms or pull-out programs supported by general, compensatory or special
education funding.

3. Important educational decisions about intensity and likely duration of
interventions are based on individual student response to instruction across
multiple tiers of intervention. Decisions about the necessity of more intense
interventions, including eligibility for special education, exit from special
education or other services, are informed by data on learning rate and level.

What Works. These three key components have one central theme. The individual student’ s response to instruction is the key factor driving changes in the quality and quantity of instruction. To the extent that students with significant disabilities have major gaps between with their peers on academic and behavioral measures, the concept of RtI may be most relevant for these clients, their families, and the educational teams serving these clients.

Al :: Oct.02.2008 :: Uncategorized :: No Comments »

Who is the older struggling reader? The primary focus of NCLB ( No Child Left Behind) and related resources was on students in K-3 grades. This was an admirable goal because of the preventive role of quality K-3 reading instruction. Unfortunately, approximately 75% of the students failing reading in third grade are also failing in ninth grade. In a Spring_2007_Report by the NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progress) it was reported that the percentage of grade 12 students performing at “Basic Level” decreased from 80% in 1992 to 73% in 2005. Many observers feel that both the 80% and 73% estimates are too optimistic because these numbers refer to students still in school in grade 12 and do not include students who dropped out. The NAEP Report notes that the concept of a “Basic Level” is closely linked to vocational and economic survival in the workplace. On the NAEP assessment, retrieving information from a highly detailed document is an example of the knowledge and skills demonstrated by students performing at the Basic Level.

Two major challenges. The older struggling reader brings far greater instructional challenges than the younger reader performing below grade level. The first major challenge relates to limited resources. Struggling readers in secondary schools are often 5 to 8 years below grade level. Closing this gap requires a massive investment in instructional time and associated resources. An “Instructional Guide for Building Reading Proficiency at the Secondary Level” by the Southwest Educational Development Laboratory (SEDL) stated, “By the secondary grades, students are presumed to have acquired basic reading skills. Over the past decade, researchers and policy makers have all but abandoned attention to secondary-level remediation…..Unfortunately the need remains.” Deep and growing concern by educators prompted SEDL to invest in this instructional guide. Clearly, many educators are expressing growing concern at the lack of resources to address this issue. In most high schools a review of staffing, budgets, and courses will not reflect the seriousness of this instructional need. The second major challenge lies in the the lack of reading skills and the associated “emotional baggage.” While we have extensive research to suggest that much of the reading failure could have been prevented by timely, intensive, direct instruction, the student often views the failure differently. The SEDL Guide (listed above) states: “Years of failing at what is deemed a hallmark of intelligence and worth can also leave struggling readers with emotional consequences, such as anxiety and low self-esteem, that affect personality and interpersonal relationships. These effects within and beyond the classroom walls show that by the secondary grades, educators can no longer defer solutions to future development or instruction.”  This last challenge requires the secondary educator to be the best and last hope for the older struggling reader. The first instructional sessions must be substantive and successful. The student will start instruction with the expectation of failure. This expectation must be replaced by a successful experience. An effective instructional program must be selected, and effectively implemented. In the initial instructional experiences in high school, the student must receive consistent demonstrations of success if we are to counter the years of failure experiences.

Decoding skills and the secondary struggling reader. The initial instructional experiences must address decoding skills. There are two distinct groups of struggling readers. The first group lacks beginning reading skills and performs below the second grade level. The second and larger group of students performs from 2.5 to 5.0 grade level. This second group can decode single-syllable words and recognize some high-frequency words. The first group will require instruction that addresses letter-sound associations and the blending and segmenting of these letter sounds. The second group will have difficulty decoding multisyllable words. These students lack the confidence and word attack skills needed to read unknown words. Typically struggling readers will guess based on the initial sound or guess based on the context. Both of these bad habits, sometimes taught by previous teachers, add to confusion and lack of confidence. These students are skilled in disguising their problems and avoiding  formal and informal assessment settings, particularly if assessments are done in the presence of peers.

Students avoid things that failed them. Because of assessment difficulties and the need for initial high success experiences, both groups should be taught beginning phonemic skills, namely, sounds and blending. The group two students can then move on a fast track to word attack skills for multisyllable and new unknown words.  Because of the emotional baggage associated with past failure experiences, the selected instructional program should not repeat previously failed instructional programs and associated instructional materials.  See  Decoding for All Ages . This program was designed to address the instructional needs of  older struggling reader and allows the teacher to systematically and successfully address  the needs of both groups of struggling older readers.

Al :: Aug.27.2008 :: Uncategorized :: No Comments »

Emphasize appropriate “on-task” behavior. The effective teacher knows that effective class management is not about reducing misbehavior but rather about replacing inappropriate behavior by increasing appropriate behavior. There is little in the research literature to suggest there is a positive correlation between the frequency of interventions to reduce misbehavior and student achievement. One researcher, Kounin, observing in 80 classrooms, noted that the least effective teacher they observed conducted 986 interventions to reduce misbehavior in one day and that teacher’s students were “on-task”approximately 25% of the school day. The most effective teachers made very few interventions for misbehavior and their students were “on-task” approximately 80% of the school day. In other words the least effective teacher took a week to teach what the most effective teachers taught in one day. In the following research summary we suggest a range of management practices, and include a teacher self-evaluation checklist.

More to come.

Al :: May.20.2008 :: Uncategorized :: No Comments »

(Para 1.) What is “important non-aligned” reading content? A reading instruction program should systematically and effectively increase a student’s ability to successfully read more advanced content with each passing year. Unfortunately, a student is often asked to read and comprehend content that is too difficult. That is, the reading assignment is not aligned with a student’s reading skills. Sometimes this occurs at a system-wide level when district fourth graders are required to read math textbooks which often require eighth grade reading skills. Even more unfortunate is non-alignment due to a student’s lack of annual progress. The reading research has consistently reported that most students who lack the necessary prerequisite phonemic awareness, phonics, reading fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension strategies at age nine face a life of illiteracy. It is not unusual to find that these students progress less than one grade level of reading achievement for the last eight years in school. For many years educators often thought that increasing the interest level of reading content, alone, would address reading failure. This assumption has yet to be validated by the research. While many of these non-alignment issues require extensive system-wide interventions over time, there are non-alignment issues that can and should be addressed by individual teachers. If the reading content is important and modest in size, e.g. a few pages, then a teacher can make the difference. Important content can take different forms, from content that has life-saving implications to content that addresses and prevents important threats to a students self esteem. One of the greatest threats to life for children world-wide comes from water borne diseases. In many cases, preventive information reaches an individual or family as a two-page health brochure. Text content on after-school safety and similar information is often very important. Content that addresses the cultural priorities of a community has important implications for the individual and the community. The following procedures are suggested if the content is important and limited to a few pages.

(Para 2.) First, analyze the reading task. Given that text content is limited to a page or two, a vocabulary analysis will help define many of the instructional challenges. For an example of important text, see the bullying brochure. This brochure will have maximum value if the individual can read the document privately, when needed. A typical vocabulary analysis lists the words in the text in alphabetical order or in order of frequency. If you have a good grasp of a student’s present reading vocabulary, the vocabulary analysis can be limited to the words that would be difficult or new for the student. One of the quickest and most effective ways to do a vocabulary analysis is to use an online text analysis tool. For example, see online text analysis tool. This tool will give you an unfiltered word count. Try it. Link to the online text analysis tool, paste in text from the bullying brochure and press the “process text” button. You could type in the text if you do not have the text in electronic form.

(Para 3.) Second, simplify the reading task. If possible, use the vocabulary analysis to modify and simplify the reading task. Sometimes this is not possible. If you can replace more complex text with less difficult text, the challenges facing the teacher and the student will be reduced.

(Para 4.) Third, diagnose student vocabulary needs. Give the student a copy of the vocabulary analysis. Make notes on a teacher copy and do not place stress on the student. Ask the student to read each word and move on if the word is too difficult. The teacher notes should identify errors and possible bad habits that need to be addressed, e.g., guessing the word based on the first sound. If there is any indication that the student lacks basic decoding skills, i.e. lacks knowledge of basic sounds and blending skills, this should be noted. At this time, do not use the target document for diagnostic testing, e.g., the bully brochure. If the content of the document is important, the document should not be associated with embarrassment or failure in any form. The teacher’s role is to diagnose student needs, teach needed vocabulary and associated decoding skills, and then present the target document when the probability of student success is at least 80%. Even if the affective impact on the content was not the important issue it is, the diagnosis and teaching of the specific needed words as the first step, is based on a wealth of research including the research by Joseph Jenkins in 1978.

(Para 5.) Fourth, preparing a prescription: basic phonics skills. If there is a concern that the student lacks basic letter sounds, use a pronunciation guide to test sound skills. For an example of a pronunciation guide see page 14 of the Teachers Resource Manual. When you point to a sound, the student should pronounce the sound. If the student does not achieve at least 80%, or correctly identify 32 of the 40 sounds, the intervention should start with the teaching of these basic sounds to at least the 80% success level. Suggestions for teaching the sounds can be found on page 6 of the resource manual. If there is a concern about the students blending skills, use the “slow way – fast way” procedure to teach blending as demonstrated on page 7 of the resource manual. See previous posting on phonemic awareness for more information on blending and related skills.

(Para 6.) Fifth, preparing a prescription: vocabulary skills. To ensure student success, the intervention should successfully teach the needed vocabulary and the associated phonic word-attack skills discussed in the previous paragraph. Use the following four steps to teach each of the needed vocabulary words.

Step 1. Instructor points to each letter as it is sounded, and says: “My turn. Listen to
me say this word the slow way. ‘SSSaaammm’.”

Step 2. Instructor points to the same word, and says: “My turn. Listen to me say this
word the fast way. ‘Sam’.”

Step 3. Instructor asks learner to sound out the word slowly. Example: “Your turn.
Say the word the slow way.” Learner sounds out word slowly.
Example: “SSSaaammm.”

Step 4. Instructor asks learner to say the word fast. Example: “Your turn. Say the
word the fast way.”
Learner says the word. Example: “Sam.”

If the the vocabulary word is an irregular word such as the word “was”, use the following step to replace the Step 4 above.

Step 4. “Well done. You said the word the slowway. But when we say it fast, we say it differently. We say “wos.” Your turn. Say the word the fast way.” Learner says the word. Example: “wos.”

Remember: Use the model, guide, and test correction procedure to correct mistakes.

If there is any concern about student comprehension of the new vocabulary, discuss the meaning with the student. Return to the word at a later time and ask the student to use the word in a sentence.

(Para 7.) Sixth, provide prompted practice and then independent practice. Given that the needed vocabulary and word attack skills have been diagnosed, taught and mastered, the student is ready for a successful experience with the target text, e.g., the bullying brochure. To increase the probability of success, the initial reading of the target text should be supported and prompted by the teacher. If the student struggles with any of the text, use the “slow way – fast way” vocabulary teaching procedures listed above. Fade the prompting procedures as the student acquires the needed competency and confidence. As a part of the independent practice, discuss and apply content to student experiences. In the case of the bullying document we used as an example, the implications for the individual are massive, given that students who are “different” are more often victims of bullying. See Research Summary:Bullying for more information on bullying.

Al :: May.01.2008 :: Uncategorized :: No Comments »

(Para 1.) Inclusion: Implications for peers. With the “deinstitutionalization movement” of the mid seventies came a policy priority on inclusion, placement in the neighborhood school, placement in the regular classroom, and more recently, access to the general curriculum. A common assumption underlying many federal and state policies suggests that such physical proximity will increase the quality and quantity of social interactions for students with disabilities. Recent IDEA policy requirements emphasize the importance of intensive, explicit, targeted instruction, a very different emphasis from the less explicit “meeting social needs via proximity.” In the recent posting on Social Stories, reference was made to the explicit teaching of social skills and the use of peer modeling as an instructional tool. In peer modeling and the Social Stories intervention, the persons targeted are students with disabilities, not their typically developing peers. Recent research asks: Should these typically developing peers also be the instructional targets and should these peers be systematically and explicitly taught behaviors such as peer initiation, and peer response in social communications with students with disabilities?

(Para 2.) The proximity assumption. In a 2006 research report, it was noted than students with “high functioning autism” in regular classrooms “experienced lower centrality, acceptance, companionship, and reciprocity.” Researchers note that we have well validated methods to train peers to respond to and increase the quality and quantity of social interactions with students with disabilities. A December 2007 research summary states:

“Despite successful research outcomes of peer tutoring approaches, the use of peer mediated interventions appears to be rare in schools. In practice, educators are not likely to be aware of the positive and negative functions of peers in the quality of life of children with Autism…. One impediment is concern about interference in the academic learning of peers…… group lessons with students with disabilities including autism do not produce decreased gain scores for typically developing students —- effective instruction and teaching strategies appear to be more important for group lessons than the presence or absence of students with disabilities.” Kathleen Whitbread’s research summary documents the positive impact on peers and the importance of peer training to achieve the promise and requirement for inclusive settings.

(Para 3.) Curriculum for the peers. A 2005 research report documented substantive improvements in the social interactions of students with autism when their typically developing peers were trained in specific social interaction skills. The curriculum for these typically developing peers included modeling and teaching:

1. Getting attention by touching and speaking.

2. Allowing children with autism to choose play materials.

3. Paying attention and waiting.

4. Demonstrating play activities.

5. Including verbal statements.

6. suggesting activities.

7. Turn-taking.

8. Narration of play activities.

9. Providing help.

10. Sharing activities.

11. Explaining.

12. Reinforcing attempts to extend play activities.

13. Using eye contact to communicate.

14. Using gestures to communicate.

15. Respecting personal space.

A review of this curriculum suggests that many students with disabilities would benefit from peer interactions targeting needed social and communication skills. Extending this curriculum to siblings of students with disabilities would substantively extend the instructional day and increase alignment between home and school. The 15 peer skills listed above were based on a peer curriculum developed in the late 1980’s by Bob Koegel who trained under Ivar Lovaas at UCLA. The intervention was known as Pivotal Response Training ( PRT) because the training emphasized teaching skills “pivotal” to functioning in a wide range of settings. For example, teaching turn-taking has wide and life-long implications. Kogel also emphasized the use of “natural consequences” such as teaching the language command to open a glass jar with a visible candy in the jar. He also suggested that social interaction instruction should first use a play activity the student already likes, rather than compound the social skill difficulty by using a new or disliked activity as well as a social interaction. See the Pivotal Response Training Manual for use in a range of school, peer and home settings.

(Para 4.) Implications for school and beyond. The peer training curriculum suggested above can substantively expand the instructional day because peer social interactions occur in class, during breaks and on school transport vehicles. Some of the goals of inclusive instruction are long term and societal. Students without disabilities serving in a peer tutoring role, improve their own general curriculum skills and social skills. The social and communication instructional skills will generalize to their home and community settings as siblings, to their adult life as parents of young children, and to their adult community life as they interact with adults with disabilities. For those students with disabilities needing extensive and intensive instruction in social and communication skills, the training of their peers as members of the instructional team is not an option — it is a requirement.

Al :: Mar.29.2008 :: Uncategorized :: No Comments »

(Para 1.) Definition and goals. The term “Social Stories,” a trade mark term, applies to an intervention developed by Carol Gray in 1991. This intervention, in a range of forms, clarifies social expectations for students with autism. The term “Social Scripts” has also been used for this intervention. Originally, the intervention was designed to clarify social expectations, and provide a guide for conduct in a specific social situation. The stories or scripts were often specific to the individual and targeted situations, problematic to that individual. The Autism Society of America has listed the intervention as one of six major interventions, along with other interventions such as “Lovass” and “TEACCH.” A social story specific to the individual, exemplifies the behavior of the individual and others, and can be read “to” or “by” the individual. The story is presented far enough in advance to allow multiple readings. A presentation should be given just before an example of the targeted social situation occurs. For examples of social stories see “Asking for Help,” “Bossing Others,” and “Asking to play at Recess” by Alyson Willey.

(Para 2.) Intervention Priorities. A recent research summary noted that, “There is strong evidence that the capacity to share attention and emotion with others is specifically and universally impaired in autism.” Given this finding, social stories that target and model social interactions address an important need. This need is often shared by other students with disabilities. The need to model and prompt social interactions has also generated a range of mediated prompting to help define some of the complexities of social interaction. Video support has generated supportive research findings. Peer modeling of the story content serves to define the complexities of the target social interaction. Peer modeling provides an opportunity for the student to observe and practice the targeted social behavior. The following description from a research report describes an instructional progression involving peer modeling and structured and generalization settings.

“Following the (social story) intervention, which consisted reading individualized stories, answering comprehension questions, and participation in a 10 minute play session, the duration of social engagement increased for all three students with both a training peer and a novel peer….. two students demonstrated generalization to a classroom setting.”

The researchers stressed the importance of generalization of social skills across setting and other peers.

(Para 3.) Writing and assessing social stories. The typical social story is short, approximately 20-150 words. In behavioral terms, the social story provides a prompting tool to give a student specific direction in problematic social interactions. All the normal considerations of effective instruction must be met, including assessing the changes in student behavior, progressively refining the social story and its implementation based on student outcomes, and recognizing and rewarding the changes in student behavior. In progressively refining student behavior some researchers have used a student’s self-evaluation of video of the interaction. In one successful study researchers used two screens for feedback and student self-evaluation. One screen had story text and other screen presented the video of the interaction. Generalization of the student’s social behavior across settings and individuals will be a demanding and important outcome. Generalization across school and community settings will require extensive and ongoing coordination. A high priority must be placed on social interactions that will increase access to the total curriculum such as the ability to take turns, to share, and to ask for help. For the student with autism, social interactions on the bus and playground can enhance or cloud the total school day. We now have considerable practical information on the preparation of quality social stories and their effective implementation. The Social Stories Handout is an excellent 16 page staff development tool that includes a multiple choice comprehension check in the appendix. It is highly recommended for teachers and paraprofessionals serving all students needing systemic, explicit instruction in social interactions.

Al :: Mar.19.2008 :: Uncategorized :: 1 Comment »

(Para 1.) Spelling and reading instruction. Spelling and reading share many skills, particularly sound-symbol relationships. There is a high correlation between beginning reading and beginning spelling achievement. The National Reading Panel reports that success in beginning spelling and beginning reading both depend on competency in phonemic awareness. See the posting “Teaching Phonemic Awareness” for more information on phonemic awareness instruction. Spelling and reading skills are very interdependent in the k-2 grades. Typically, the more formal assessments of spelling achievement begin in grade 2 and finish at the end of grade 7. Mastery of grade 7 spelling often meets high school graduation requirements. Spelling, like handwriting, is a “window” skill, in that teachers and families often make other judgments based on spelling because it is very visible. A teacher may assign higher creative writing scores to students with better spelling skills, even if spelling is not the focus of the assessment.

(Para 2.) Spelling and handwriting instruction. The link between spelling and handwriting is strong and rather obvious. As a communication tool, handwritten spelling has major social, vocational, and even life and death implications, particularly when used to transmit medical prescriptions. Most formal spelling instruction requires handwriting skills as a prerequisite. For more information on handwriting instruction see the posting “Handwriting Suggestions.” Handwriting resource materials can be found at the “Handwriting Resources” page. Some of the handwriting worksheets on this resource page provide beginning spelling instruction. Worksheets that use animal characters at the top of the page instead of words provide both spelling and handwriting practice.

(Para 3.) Invented spelling: a caution. The National Right to Read Foundation (NRRF) stated: “When students are puzzled, when writing, as to how to spell a word, they have several options. For example, they can substitute a word for the one they cannot spell. Two, they can stop and seek help from classmates, the teacher, dictionaries, etc. Three, they can leave a blank space, continue writing, and fill in the word later. Four, they can spell the word phonetically, i.e.,can apply their knowledge of speech sound-letter relationships to its spelling. Five, they can “invent” an idiosyncratic spelling for the word. …. In schools where phonics information is taught in a direct and systematic fashion, it is common for teachers to direct children to use the fourth option.”

The fifth option, “invented spelling,” has generated considerable concern in the parent community. Any teacher considering this option should review the research. A summary of these concerns can be found in a related NRRF policy document. For many parents, a major concern with “invented spelling” rests in a perceived lack of teacher commitment to directly teach needed reading and spelling skills.

(Para 4.) Writing and spelling: Lifelong implications. The acts of writing and spelling pervade many aspects of personal, social and vocational life. To the extent that we reduce the emotional baggage associated with the acts of writing and spelling, we make a positive life-long contribution for the student. Given that more formal spelling assessment often begins in grade 2, we must ensure a competent, confident start in formal spelling instruction. First, we must build a supportive interaction between reading and spelling. Too often, the spelling curriculum and the reading curriculum are not highly aligned, and the spelling list may contain many words the student cannot decode with the reading skills taught to date. If the student is failing spelling, and the spelling and reading vocabulary are not well aligned, it may be preferable to use the reading vocabulary the student has mastered to increase success in spelling and student attitude to spelling. Leaving a student to continue spelling failure experiences only increases the emotional baggage the student will bring to future writing experiences.

(Para 5.) A beginning spelling list. We recommend a minimum of irregular words in the beginning grade 2 spelling list. The listing for the first half of grade 2 should be very decodable and closely aligned with a research-based reading program.  The spelling word list  for the second half of grade 2 can add more irregular words. Practice each lesson until the list is mastered without errors. At least 20% of the spelling instruction time should be used for reviewing words previously mastered. Student success should be consistently recognized by teachers and parents.

(Para 6.) Teach spelling in context. Spelling words should always be taught in a context that exemplifies the meaning in written and oral use. To ensure a valid measure of student spelling skills students should practice and master the test-taking skills required for formal spelling tests. Formal spelling tests usually present the word in context, and require additional time management and correction skills. See the following example.

“You should have a pen ready and paper numbered from 1 to ?. I will say the number and the spelling word, a sentence using the word, then I’ll repeat the word again. Write the spelling word as quickly as you can , next to the number. If you want to change a word, cross it out and write the word again. If you cannot spell a word, move along with me to the next word. Let’s get started. One: WEB —- the spider made a WEB. Spell WEB.” ( allow a set time to answer e.g., 10 seconds.)

For an excellent list of practical suggestions for spelling instruction for failing students, see suggestions by Susan Jones.

Comprehension Check – What was the author thinking.

Answers – Comprehension Check.

Al :: Mar.10.2008 :: Uncategorized :: No Comments »

(Para 1.) Potty training, Mayo Clinic overview. In November, 2007 the Mayo Clinic published an overview, Potty training: How to get the job done . This short overview provides an excellent, practical summary of the research. The initial question concerns readiness. Is it time? For students with no evidence of developmental delays, toilet training is usually initiated before age 3. Regardless of the age toilet training is initiated, the student or family should not be going through a major change such as a move or the arrival of a new sibling. For some students with disabilities, the readiness questions in the Mayo Clinic overview, become training objectives. Such questions include:

1. Can your child follow basic directions?

2. Can your child ask specific questions?

3. Can your child pull down his or her pants and pull them up again?

(Para 2.) Introduction to three instructional programs. For those serving students with developmental delays, this posting provides three research-based instructional programs. The first program Toilet Training – Short Term, was designed and tested as a tool for students with less severe needs. The child is ready for this program if there is:

1. a regular pattern of urination and bowel movement.

2. an ability to walk without help.

3. the skill to grasp small objects.

4. the ability to follow simple directions.

(Para 3.) Toilet Training Part I. This toilet training program was designed an tested for students with multiple and severe disabilities. Download Toilet Training Part I , examine the table of contents. Before beginning this program ask yourself: Is the child ready? Page 4 of the program leads you through this question.

(Para 4.) Toilet Training Part II. This toilet training program is a continuation of Toilet Training Part I. Download Toilet Training Part II and review the contents to determine the sections that match the needs of the student.

(Para 5.) Coordinating home and school. All three of the above listed programs were designed and tested to support home-school coordination. One major vehicle for facilitating coordination is the record keeping system included with each program. Toilet Training Parts I and II have served as a national staff development resource for teachers, aides, volunteers and families serving students with severe disabilities. Because some parts of the documents will not apply to all families, relevant parts may be copied and shared as needed with families. One common element from all the above listed programs is the avoidance of criticism and punishment. Home and school coordination on this issue is important. At school the responses of aides and volunteers must be coordinated. At home the behavior of siblings and baby sitters must also be coordinated. The role of medications requires coordination. Some seizure medications can cause diarrhea. With all these interacting variables, the importance of daily record keeping increases. Changes in toileting behavior may be closely linked to changes at home and school.

Al :: Feb.25.2008 :: Uncategorized :: No Comments »

(Para 1.) Eating and drinking, linking motor and social skills. Achieving independence in eating and drinking skills opens doors to improved social skills, motor skills, and health enhancing skills, as well as an improved self-concept. For students who look forward to meal time, the natural consequences reduce the instructional challenges. The one caution will be competency in the first-aid responses to choking. Such competency is required if the the student is eating dependently or independently. The student eating independently still requires competent, constant supervision. A copy of the training program on eating and drinking skills can be viewed and downloaded from the links. All persons involved in supervising or instructing students should be competent in the first aid responses on page 30 of the program.

(Para 2.) Program goals and objectives. Page 1 of the program lists the program goal or purpose and four objectives:

1. Eating with fingers.

2. Drinking from a cup.

3. Eating with a spoon.

4. Drinking with a straw.

(Para 3.) Task analysis and backward chaining, an instructional requirement. Pages 3 and 4 of the program describe the general stages for teaching the eating and drinking skills. Earlier postings reported on the importance of a task analysis. In task analysis we break the major task into steps or sub-tasks. In some cases we use forward chaining and teach the first step first. When it is mastered we teach the second step and continue until all steps have been mastered. In other cases, we use backward chaining and teach mastery of the last step first. In the matrix on page 4 of the program, you will note that the first stage in teaching requires prompting and supporting the student through all the steps, and teaching mastery of the last step in the task analysis. This is backward chaining. The choice of forward or backward chaining depends on the nature of the task and the skills of the student. In this situation the nature of the task and humane ethics of instruction suggest backward chaining. If we place a student in front of food and insist on mastering the first step of lifting up the spoon, when will the student receive food? The backward chaining requirement to master the last step first appears to be the logical and most humane alternative.

(Para 4.) Backward chaining, an effective intervention in a range of settings. A review of the research provides evidence that backward chaining teaching procedures have proved effective in a wide range of settings, from the computer programming of U.S. Air Force rockets to students with severe disabilities refusing fluids. In a research study involving a 12-year-old boy with autism, who refused to drink, backward chaining was used successfully. In a recent research study involving adults with developmental disabilities, investigators used backward chaining to teach internet skills.

(Para 5.) Backward chaining: A summary. In a journal article in 2003, Bill Brandon provided an excellent overview of backward chaining in a range of contexts. Bill identified four specific situations in which backward chaining is preferable. The four situations are:

1. When completion of the task provides natural reinforcement for the learner.

2. When “escaping” from instruction would motivate the learner.

3. When the learner has mastered less than of half the steps in the task chain OR when the learner is close to already having acquired the steps near the end of the chain.

4. When the learners are less patient or less inclined to be cooperative.

This listing of specific situations aligns with learners with a history of curriculum failure, and the needs of teachers and parents serving these students.

Comprehension check – what was the author thinking?

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Al :: Feb.17.2008 :: Uncategorized :: No Comments »

(Para 1.) It is a motor, communication, and social curriculum. The motor curriculum exemplifies the importance of an instructional team linking different disciplines and the home and school settings. The term “motor” clearly focuses on a physical behavior. In an instructional setting the motor, communication and social skills are indivisible and all benefit and support each other. In this posting we introduce two beginning motor development programs. These programs can be downloaded from the links. In Motor Development I, the emphasis is on the preskills for sitting and moving about. In Motor Development II, the emphasis is on sitting and moving about. When the student has mastered the skills in these two motor development programs, the student has the preskills for the Play Skills Program. See the Jan. 15. 2008 posting for a discussion of the Play Skills program.

(Para 2.) A Caution. Many students with severe and multiple disabilities will have increased needs in sensory and motor curriculum areas. Instructional planning will require caution. The teacher must plan with medical advice if the student is physically disabled by conditions such as cerebral palsy, paralysis, congenital hip problems and other, arm, back, or leg disabilities. This caution, while important, should not be viewed as a reason to reduce emphasis on these important student needs.

Effective teaching practices still apply. The multidisciplinary nature of the student needs does not decrease the importance of the teachers role. Indeed, many of the research-based effective teaching practices will increase in importance. In the instructions for the above-listed motor development programs, extensive reference is made to:

a. Specific verbal praise,

b. Immediate correction procedures,

c. Physical and verbal prompting and the fading of prompts,

d. Time management, and,

e. Curriculum-embedded assessment.

(Para 3.) Record keeping across settings. Instruction in motor, communication and social skills requires a 24/7 instructional investment. The above listed motor development programs were field tested to bridge the home and school settings. While many parts of the academic curriculum do not require multiple small instructional sessions each day, the motor curriculum will be physically demanding for many students with severe and multiple disabilities. Four 10-minute sessions spread across home and school settings may be typical for many of these students. The teacher’s instructional team management responsibilities will need a recordkeeping system that ensures that teachers, aides, therapists, parents and siblings are all cooperatively addressing student needs. The above listed motor development programs include recordkeeping tools and monitoring practices for instructional cooperation across home and school.

(Para 5.) Formal and informal instructional settings. The combination of home and school settings and the use of explicit, research-based programs to teach the motor, communication and social skills used in the above-listed programs provide an important additional outcome. All members of the instructional team are learning a range of effective teaching practices that will apply in other curricula areas and in formal and informal settings. The systematic use of these instructional programs increases both the range, quality and quantity of instruction.

(Para 6.) Selecting IEP motor skills goals. For students with a diverse needs, the selection and sequencing of motor skills goals provides a challenge to teachers, students and parents. The following three criteria are recommended in selecting motor skills as IEP goals.

First. Consider the benefit to student health. Health related issues would include growth, cardiac function and respiratory function.

Second. Consider skills that would increase immediate social participation. Such participation should address affective and communication outcomes.

Third. Consider skills that would increase future instructional, social and vocational integration.

Selecting priorities for motor skills using these three criteria will require a task analysis of projected goals. A proven source of task analysis information is the chapter on motor skills by Rainforth, Giangreco and Dennis. This chapter is also recommended for teachers searching for a “transdisciplinary” overview of teaching motor skills to students with multiple disabilities.

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Al :: Feb.03.2008 :: Uncategorized :: No Comments »

(Para 1.) Teacher Self-Evaluation of Classroom Management. The first posting, Oct. 30. 2007, reported that the average student spends less than 20% of the school day successfully engaged in instructional tasks. The Nov. 25. 2007 posting reported the interdependence between student classroom behavior and the teacher’s classroom time management skills. Preventing student misbehavior is often best addressed by the removal of classroom instructional vacuums and the replacement of student misbehavior with successful student on-task behavior. This Nov. 25. 2007 posting introduced the concept of “The Teacher As Executive,” and the Time Management Teacher Self-Evaluation Checklist. We will build on these earlier posts with information on teacher self-evaluation of classroom management skills.

(Para 2.) The Teacher Self-Evaluation Checklist for Classroom Management. The Teacher Self-Evaluation Checklist for Classroom Management provides a tool to systematically and progressively increase the quality of classroom management. The application of these self-evaluation skills address the needs of the client, the student, and reduces teacher stress by taking preventive actions to improve classroom management. The primary goal of effective classroom management is the promotion of learning for low and high achievers.

Classroom Management Skills. In the above listed classroom management checklist, the teacher can monitor the following five research-based management skills:

Skill 1. Instructional Strengths. The teacher use well-planned, research-based, instructional procedures to teach curriculum content.

Skill 2. Setting and Implementing Rules. The teacher uses rules and related procedures to prevent problems and manage the classroom in a business like manner.

Skill 3. Prevention. The teacher uses effective and timely interventions to prevent and reduce misbehavior.

Skill 4. Appropriate Behavior Recognized. The teacher clearly identifies and recognizes appropriate academic and social behavior.

Skill 5. Limited Reprimands. The teacher rarely uses reprimands.

(Para 3.) The teacher as executive. In managing the instructional team, the teacher must be very explicit with instructional aides and volunteers working with students. Many very well-meaning persons assisting in classroom instruction and playground supervision bring their own reference points to student interactions. Perhaps, nowhere is this more visible than with unnecessary and excessive use of reprimands. Even a mild reprimand can be psychologically devastating for some very sensitive students and absolutely meaningless to other students. As an executive managing instructional staff, the teacher should share the checklist with members of the instructional team. Such a preventive action by the teacher protects the dignity of staff and addresses the needs of students. Vulnerable students will have the most to gain from these preventive executive actions by the teacher.

(Para 4.) Effective teachers manage well. We have a wealth of research on the characteristics of our most effective teachers. We know these teachers manage well. We know that coping is rarely a major issue. We also know that we lose many teachers in the first years of teaching because they feel they cannot cope with classroom challenges. One research observer noted that, “Through management skills, superior teachers achieve what has been labeled ‘preventive discipline’ in the professional literature. They are not automatically superior teachers. They plan, worry, and work hard. . I have never known superior teachers who ‘took it easy.’ But the secret to their success – what sets them above the good teachers who also work, plan, and worry – is their process of management.” For more information on classroom management and the related research, see the chapter, “Classroom Management.” Teachers serving students with disabilities can refer to a series of more clinical classroom checklists at the link to Management Checklists.

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Al :: Jan.26.2008 :: Uncategorized :: No Comments »

(Para 1.) What are social skills? Social skills involve some type of interaction with another person or persons. Even the most elemental social skills, such as playing with another child, requires a complex set of sub-skills, including communication, attention, and motor skills. School-based instructional programs for children with severe disabilities require goals to be set, progress monitored objectively, and instruction systematically adjusted based on curriculum-embedded monitoring of student progress.

(Para 2.) Planning a task sequence to reach a social goal. One common goal for a student with severe disabilities might be to have the student play cooperatively with a peer by the end of the school year. In reality, this is a complex set of interacting social, communication and motor skills. To plan an instructional task sequence, start with a “master task” that allows for objective assessment of the subskills or variables that make up the master task. The following master task for Jack includes three variables that can be progressively changed to increase task difficulty.

(Para 3.) Master task example. Jack will (a.) play in a three foot proximity with (b.) one school peer (c.) for at least two minutes.

Variable (a.) could range in steps from playing “in proximity” to the more complex playing “with” a teacher or aide, to playing with another child, with only an initiating prompt from an adult.

Variable (b.) could range from a school peer to siblings, to a non-relative in a non-school setting. This variable has important implications for the student and the instructional team because it requires the play behavior to generalize to school, home and community settings. Teaching for generalization across settings demands considerable planning and cooperation between home and school.

Variable (c.) is the time variable and could typically range from a minute to 20 minutes. Students with very limited attention spans require intensive, explicit prompting and recognition for increasing on-task time.

An example of a more advanced form of the master task would be: Jack will play with a sibling for at least five minutes. Five versions of the master task, listed in order of difficulty, would be sufficient to guide instruction on this goal for the school year.

(Para 4.) Supervised play as important instructional time. A review of recent and past research makes reference to the long-term benefits of increased time in supervised play settings. A 2005 research report stated, “Among rapid learners, the number of hours of structured home-based peer play was significantly related to teachers ratings of social skills at 4 years.” Essentially, this structured home-based activity adds substantively to the instructional day. This said, it must be noted that systematic and intensive school-based instruction in play skills must be done first. The school must target the specific social, communication, and motor skills needed, and then provide support for the transfer to the home setting.

(Para 5.) Scripted play-skills training program. The Program: Teaching Play Skills listed in the links can be downloaded at no charge. The program can be used in home and school settings. The curriculum and instructional skills align with the research-based findings listed in the October 30 posting describing effective, early, intensive, instructional interventions.

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Al :: Jan.15.2008 :: Uncategorized :: 1 Comment »

(Para 1.) Research from 1970. In the early seventies before federal legislation required the public schools to accept all students with disabilities, teachers and researchers sought interventions for those students with severe emotional disabilities. A number of these pioneers discovered that the goal of reducing inappropriate social behavior and the goal of success in the general curriculum were not competitive, but complementary goals. In one research report the changes made by the teacher in the classroom environment generated both a reduction in student behavior problems and an increase in success in the general curriculum. One finding from this research report noted that 6 of 14 children were moved from a separate program to a regular classroom.

(Para 2) Research from 2007. In a recent multi-year research project in 23, mostly poverty impacted, elementary schools, many of the above listed findings from the 1970 study were replicated. The lead researcher reported that the majority of previous research on reducing problem behavior has been “child-directed” and assumed that the child is always the problem. The researcher further noted that “the environment may be part of the issue.” The research findings place an initial emphasis on increasing success and active engagement in the general curriculum. It was reported that, “students can’t be actively engaged and behaving inappropriately at the same time.”

(Para 3.) Teacher self-evaluations of the classroom environment. One very interesting similar finding from the 1970 and 2007 research lies in the emphasis on teacher self-evaluation of the classroom environment. In the 2007 research, one part of the teacher self-evaluations included daily 15 minute audio samples of teacher interactions with students. Teachers monitored the frequency of positive interactions and opportunities they give the problem students. The increase in the opportunities for active and successful involvement, indicated a highly preventive environment. In the 1970 research report it was noted that the self-evaluation of teacher behavior emphasized “objective definition and quantification of behavior relevant to academic performance in the classroom.” These behaviors would now be described as “effective teaching behaviors” and be exemplified by the Teacher as Executive self evaluation checklists. See Teacher Self-Evaluation Checklist for Time management, Nov.25, 2007, posting, and, Teacher Self-Evaluation Checklist for Teaching Functions, Dec. 30 2007, posting.

(PARA 4.) Creating opportunities and recognizing success. The above research stresses the importance of the teachers role in creating opportunities for success in classroom activities. With this success comes immediate recognition in a range of forms. How do we know when the recognition works? The classroom behavior we have targeted will increase or at least be maintained. When the recognition works, we call the recognition a “positive reinforcer.” For many students the most practical reinforcer will be effective praise. Praise is most effective when given immediately, frequently, and enthusiastically. Praise needs to be given with eye contact and with a specific description of the target behavior. The value of praise is also related to the importance of the person praising. For most students, parents and teachers are the most important adults in the student’s life. Praise from these adults increases the effectiveness of the praise. The teacher who follows up a praise statement during a lesson with follow up recognition of the during lesson behavior as the student comes in from break increases the effectiveness of the recognition. Following up on in-class praise with a note, e-mail, or phone call to parents, when the student reaches a major goal, will often positively impact student efforts in a major way.

(Para 5.) Least restrictive interventions. Effective praise has considerable value because it does not restrict the ongoing instructional program, and may increase student time on the curriculum tasks. Some other ways of recognizing success may be needed, if praise is not effective. These other approaches, such as the use of rewards, should be used in a “least restrictive” manner. Please consult the checklist on positive reinforcement practices for suggestions for using a range of different rewards.

Comprehension Check – What was I thinking?

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Al :: Jan.06.2008 :: Uncategorized :: No Comments »